Bess Ruff, MA
Environmental Scientist
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Co-authored Articles (171)
How to
Balance Chemical Equations
Taking a dive into the world of chemical equations? These problems can seem tricky at a glance, but they’re easy to figure out once you learn the basic steps and rules to balancing them. Not to worry; we’ll walk you ...
How to
Calculate Tension in Physics
In physics, tension is the force exerted by a rope, string, cable, or similar object on one or more objects. Anything pulled, hung, supported, or swung from a rope, string, cable, etc. is subject to the force of tension....
How to
Find Valence Electrons
In chemistry, ''valence electrons'' are the electrons that are located in the outermost electron shell of an element. Knowing how to find the number of valence electrons in a particular atom is an important skill for che...
Thermite Formula: Ingredients, Tips, and Everything You Need to Know
A step-by-step guide to making thermite at home, complete with safety information Of all the do-it-yourself chemistry experiments found online, there’s almost nothing cooler—or maybe hotter—than a thermite reaction...
How to
Find the Number of Neutrons in an Atom
'''Although all atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons, their number of neutrons can vary. Knowing how many neutrons are in a particular atom can help you determine if it's a regular atom of that el...
How to
Calculate Theoretical Yield
The theoretical yield is a term used in chemistry to describe the maximum amount of product that you expect a chemical reaction could create. You need to begin with a and define the limiting reactant. When you measure t...
How to Calculate Molarity: Easy Step-by-Step Guide
Learn how to solve molarity problems with our step-by-step guide Molarity describes the relationship between moles of a solute and the volume of a solution. To calculate molarity, you can start with moles and volume, mas...
How to
Make Activated Charcoal
Activated charcoal, sometimes called activated carbon, is useful for purifying contaminated water or polluted air. In emergency situations, activated charcoal can be used to remove dangerous toxins and poisons from your ...
How to
Read the Periodic Table
If you find the periodic table confusing and difficult to understand, you aren’t alone! Understanding how it works can be hard, but learning how to read it will help you be successful in the sciences. Start by recogniz...
How to
Make a Simple Electrical Circuit
A circuit is a closed path that electrons flow along to provide power to your home and electronics. A simple electric circuit contains a power source (battery), wires, and a resistor (light bulb). In a circuit, electrons...
How to
Calculate Impedance
Impedance is the opposition of a circuit to alternating current. It's measured in ohms. To calculate impedance, you must know the value of all resistors and the impedance of all inductors and capacitors, which offer vary...
How to
Calculate Electronegativity
In chemistry, ''electronegativity'' is a measure of how strongly an atom attracts the electrons in a bond. An atom with high electronegativity attracts electrons strongly, while an atom with low electronegativity attract...
How to
Make an Animal Cell for a Science Project
Cells are one of the important building blocks of living organisms. If you're learning biology in school, your teacher might ask you to create your own model of an animal cell to help you understand how cells work. You m...
How to
Light a Bunsen Burner
Even experienced chemists can get a little nervous when using a Bunsen burner. However, lighting and adjusting one is a simple process, so there’s no need to stress. First, make sure your workspace is free of potential...
How to
Calculate Molar Mass
Atoms are too small to allow meaningful measurement of chemical substances. To work with meaningful amounts of substances, scientists group them into units called moles. A mole is defined as the number of carbon atoms in...
How to Write an Effective Conclusion for a Science Lab Report
End your lab report and share your findings with our formatting guideA lab report describes an entire experiment from start to finish, outlining the procedures, reporting results, and analyzing data. The report is used t...
How to
Make Static Electricity
Learning how to make static electricity is a great experiment to help you learn more about physical science. Depending on your interests, you can make static electricity in several different ways. To make small shocks, y...
How to
Anodize Aluminum
Anodizing uses acid to create a corrosion- and wear-resistant layer on top of a metal. The process of anodizing also changes the crystal structure near the surface of substances, like aluminum alloy, which allows you to ...
How to
Turn Salt Water Into Drinking Water
Desalination is the process of removing salt from saltwater, which might be necessary due to a lack of clean drinking water in your area. You might also need to do this someday if you are ever stranded somewhere without ...
How to
Make Dry Ice
Dry ice is the solid form of the chemical carbon dioxide (CO2), just like normal ice is the solid form of water (H2O). Dry ice is '''extremely cold''' (-109.3°F/-78.5°C), so it is used for a wide variety of cooling and...