Bess Ruff, MA
Environmental Scientist
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Co-authored Articles (162)
How to
Balance Chemical Equations
Taking a dive into the world of chemical equations? These problems can seem tricky at a glance, but they’re easy to figure out once you learn the basic steps and rules to balancing them. Not to worry; we’ll walk you ...
How to
Calculate Tension in Physics
In physics, tension is the force exerted by a rope, string, cable, or similar object on one or more objects. Anything pulled, hung, supported, or swung from a rope, string, cable, etc. is subject to the force of tension....
How to
Find Valence Electrons
In chemistry, ''valence electrons'' are the electrons that are located in the outermost electron shell of an element. Knowing how to find the number of valence electrons in a particular atom is an important skill for che...
Thermite Formula: Ingredients, Tips, and Everything You Need to Know
A step-by-step guide to making thermite at home, complete with safety information Of all the do-it-yourself chemistry experiments found online, there’s almost nothing cooler—or maybe hotter—than a thermite reaction...
How to
Calculate Theoretical Yield
The theoretical yield is a term used in chemistry to describe the maximum amount of product that you expect a chemical reaction could create. You need to begin with a and define the limiting reactant. When you measure t...
How to
Make an Animal Cell for a Science Project
Cells are one of the important building blocks of living organisms. If you're learning biology in school, your teacher might ask you to create your own model of an animal cell to help you understand how cells work. You m...
How to
Make Activated Charcoal
Activated charcoal, sometimes called activated carbon, is useful for purifying contaminated water or polluted air. In emergency situations, activated charcoal can be used to remove dangerous toxins and poisons from your ...
How to Calculate Molarity: Easy Step-by-Step Guide
Learn how to solve molarity problems with our step-by-step guide Molarity describes the relationship between moles of a solute and the volume of a solution. To calculate molarity, you can start with moles and volume, mas...
How to
Calculate Impedance
Impedance is the opposition of a circuit to alternating current. It's measured in ohms. To calculate impedance, you must know the value of all resistors and the impedance of all inductors and capacitors, which offer vary...
How to
Make Fog
Fog is created whenever rapid condensation occurs. You can create a small amount of fog in a jar using hot water and ice, but for larger amounts, you will need to use a liquid glycerin solution. For fog that falls instea...
How to
Anodize Aluminum
Anodizing uses acid to create a corrosion- and wear-resistant layer on top of a metal. The process of anodizing also changes the crystal structure near the surface of substances, like aluminum alloy, which allows you to ...
How to
Write Electron Configurations for Atoms of Any Element
An atom's ''electron configuration'' is a numeric representation of its electron orbitals. Electron orbitals are differently-shaped regions around an atom's nucleus where electrons are mathematically likely to be located...
How to
Make a Simple Electrical Circuit
A circuit is a closed path that electrons flow along to provide power to your home and electronics. A simple electric circuit contains a power source (battery), wires, and a resistor (light bulb). In a circuit, electrons...
How to
Make Elephant Toothpaste
Making elephant toothpaste is an easy and fun science experiment that you can do with your kids at home or with students in the lab. It is the result of a chemical reaction that creates a large amount of oozing foam. The...
How to
Read the Periodic Table
If you find the periodic table confusing and difficult to understand, you aren’t alone! Understanding how it works can be hard, but learning how to read it will help you be successful in the sciences. Start by recogniz...
How to
Make Static Electricity
Learning how to make static electricity is a great experiment to help you learn more about physical science. Depending on your interests, you can make static electricity in several different ways. To make small shocks, y...
How to Make an Explosion
Have a blast with these fun and safe ways to create an explosion at home To call it an experiment would be incorrect (you are doing a demonstration!) but no matter what you call it, an explosion is a great way to have fu...
How to
Electroplate Household Metals
Electroplating is a process used to coat one metal with that of a separate metal. There are many objects in our everyday lives that have been plated with other metals: gold-plated jewelry, nickel and copper plated coins,...
How to
Calculate Molar Absorptivity
Molar absorptivity, also known as the molar extinction coefficient, is a measure of how well a chemical species absorbs a given wavelength of light. It allows you to make comparisons about the probability of electrons tr...
How to
Calculate Electronegativity
In chemistry, ''electronegativity'' is a measure of how strongly an atom attracts the electrons in a bond. An atom with high electronegativity attracts electrons strongly, while an atom with low electronegativity attract...
